A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid Lipids are a broad group of naturally occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes, and as important signaling molecules compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long unbranched aliphatic tail , which is either saturated or unsaturated. The most occurring natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms because their biosynthesis involves acetyl-CoA, a coenzyme carrying a two-carbon-atom group (see fatty acid synthesis) and have important functions in the animal Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of atoms, including a 5-carbon ring.

They are mediators and have a variety of strong physiological Physiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology. In physiology, the scientific method is applied to determine how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical function that they have in a living system. The word physiology is from Ancient Greek: φύσις effects, such as regulating the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle tissue.[1] Prostaglandins are not hormones A hormone is a chemical released by a cell in one part of the body, that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones;, but autocrines or paracrines, which are locally acting messenger molecules. They differ from hormones in that they are not produced at a discrete site but in many places throughout the human body. Also, their target cells are present in the immediate vicinity of the site of their excretion (of which there are many).

The prostaglandins, together with the thromboxanes Thromboxane is a member of the family of lipids known as eicosanoids. The two major thromboxanes are thromboxane A2 and thromboxane B2 and prostacyclins Prostacyclin is a member of the family of lipid molecules known as eicosanoids, form the prostanoid Cyclooxygenase catalyzes the conversion of the free essential fatty acids to prostanoids by a two-step process. In the first step, two molecules of O2 are added as two peroxide linkages and a 5-member carbon ring is forged near the middle of the fatty acid chain. This forms the short-lived, unstable intermediate Prostaglandin G (PGG). One of the class of fatty acid derivatives, a subclass of eicosanoids In biochemistry, eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by oxidation of twenty-carbon essential fatty acids, . They exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or immunity, and as messengers in the central nervous system. The networks of controls that depend upon eicosanoids are among the most complex in the human body.

Contents

History and name

The name prostaglandin derives from the prostate gland The prostate is a compound tubuloalveolar exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system. Females do not have prostate glands. A gland with similar characteristics, previously called paraurethral or Skene's glands, connected to the distal third of the urethra in the prevaginal space has been considered by few researches as a ". When prostaglandin was first isolated from seminal fluid in 1935 by the Swedish physiologist Physiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology. In physiology, the scientific method is applied to determine how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical function that they have in a living system. The word physiology is from Ancient Greek: φύσις Ulf von Euler Ulf Svante von Euler was a Swedish physiologist and pharmacologist. He won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1970 for his work on neurotransmitters,[2] and independently by M.W. Goldblatt,[3] it was believed to be part of the prostatic secretions. (In fact, prostaglandins are produced by the seminal vesicles Each seminal gland spreads approximately 5 cm, though the full length of seminal vesicle is approximately 10 cm, but it is curled up inside of the gland's structure. Each gland forms as an outpocketing of the wall of ampulla of each vas deferens). It was later shown that many other tissues secrete prostaglandins for various functions. The first total syntheses In principle a total synthesis is the complete chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules from simpler pieces, usually without the aid of biological processes of prostaglandin F2α and prostaglandin E2 were reported by E. J. Corey in 1969.[4]

In 1971, it was determined that aspirin Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid (pronounced /əˌsɛtəlˌsælɨˈsɪlɨk/ ə-SET-əl-sal-i-SIL-ik, abbreviated ASA), is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication-like drugs could inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins. The biochemists The most common "industry" role is to develop biochemical products and processes. This can be done by conducting in vitro research, analysis, synthesis and experimenting. Identifying substances' chemical and physical properties in biological systems is of great importance, and can be carried out by doing various types of analysis' Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson He was born in Halmstad in southwest Sweden and studied at Stockholm University, where he became a professor in 1967. He shared with Sune K. Bergström and John R. Vane the 1982 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related substances. In 1975,he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from and John R. Vane jointly received the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Peace, and Physiology or Medicine since 1901. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or for their research on prostaglandins.

Biochemistry

Biosynthesis

Biosynthesis of eicosanoids. (series-2)

Prostaglandins are found in most tissues and organs. They are produced by all nucleated cells except lymphocytes. They are autocrine Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells. This can be contrasted with paracrine signaling, intracrine signaling, or classical endocrine signaling and paracrine Paracrine signaling is a form of cell signaling in which the target cell is near the signal-releasing cell lipid mediators that act upon platelets Platelets, or thrombocytes , are small, irregularly-shaped anuclear cell fragments (i.e. cells that do not have a nucleus containing DNA), 2-3 µm in diameter, which are derived from fragmentation of precursor megakaryocytes. The average lifespan of a platelet is normally just 5 to 9 days. Platelets play a fundamental role in hemostasis and are a, endothelium The endothelium is the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. These cells are called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart to the smallest capillary. These cells reduce, uterine The uterus (from Latin "uterus" , plural uteruses or uteri) or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species. It is within the uterus that the fetus and mast cells A mast cell is a resident cell of several types of tissues and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Although best known for their role in allergy and anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately involved in wound healing and defense against pathogens. They are synthesized in the cell from the essential fatty acids Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest for good health because the body requires them but can't make them from other food components. The term refers to fatty acids required for biological processes, and not those that only act as fuel[5] (EFAs).

An intermediate is created from phospholipase-A2 Phospholipases A2 EC 3.1.1.4 are enzymes that release fatty acids from the second carbon group of glycerol. This particular phospholipase specifically recognizes the sn-2 acyl bond of phospholipids and catalytically hydrolyzes the bond releasing arachidonic acid and lysophospholipids. Upon downstream modification by cyclooxygenases, arachidonic, then brought out of one of either the cyclooxygenase pathway Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme (EC 1.14.99.1) that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin and or the lipoxygenase pathway Lipoxygenases are a family of iron-containing enzymes that catalyse the dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipids containing a cis,cis-1,4- pentadiene structure. It catalyses the following reaction: to form either prostaglandin and thromboxane or leukotriene Leukotrienes are fatty molecules of the immune system that contribute to inflammation in asthma and allergic rhinitis. Leukotriene antagonists are used to treat these diseases respectively. The cyclooxygenase pathway produces thromboxane Thromboxane is a member of the family of lipids known as eicosanoids. The two major thromboxanes are thromboxane A2 and thromboxane B2, prostacyclin Prostacyclin is a member of the family of lipid molecules known as eicosanoids and prostaglandin D, E and F. The lipoxygenase enzyme pathway is inactive in leukocytes White blood cells , or leukocytes (also spelled "leucocytes"), are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic and in macrophages Macrophages are white blood cells within tissues, produced by the differentiation of monocytes. Human macrophages are about 21 micrometres (0.00083 in) in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes, acting in both non-specific defense (innate immunity) as well as to help initiate specific defense mechanisms (adaptive immunity) of and synthesizes leukotrienes.

Name EFA Type Series
Gamma-linolenic acid γ-Linolenic acid is a fatty acid found primarily in vegetable oils. It is sold as a dietary supplement for treating problems with inflammation and auto-immune diseases. The efficacy of such use is disputed (GLA) via DGLA Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid is a 20-carbon ω−6 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:3 (ω−6). Chemically, DGLA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and three cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon from the omega end. DGLA is the elongation product of γ-linolenic acid (GLA; 18:3, ω-6 n−6 fatty acids are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the n−6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the end opposite the carboxyl group series-1
Arachidonic acid Arachidonic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6). It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil, (L. arachis – peanut.) (AA) ω-6 series-2
Eicosapentaenoic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5(n-3). It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. In chemical structure, EPA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end (EPA) ω-3 n−3 fatty acids are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the n−3 position; that is, the third bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid series-3

Release of prostaglandins from the cell

Prostaglandins were originally believed to leave the cells via passive diffusion because of their high lipophilicity. The discovery of the prostaglandin transporter (PGT, SLCO2A1), which mediates the cellular uptake of prostaglandin, demonstrated that diffusion cannot explain the penetration of prostaglandin through the cellular membrane. The release of prostaglandin has now also been shown to be mediated by a specific transporter, namely the multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4, ABCC4), a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter superfamily. Whether MRP4 is the only transporter releasing prostaglandins from the cells is still unclear.

Cyclooxygenases

Prostaglandins are produced following the sequential oxidation of AA, DGLA or EPA by cyclooxygenases Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme (EC 1.14.99.1) that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin and (COX-1 and COX-2) and terminal prostaglandin synthases. The classic dogma is as follows:

However, while COX-1 and COX-2 are both located in the blood vessels The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from, stomach In some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects and molluscs, the stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as the primary organ of the digestive tract. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing). The stomach is located between the esophagus and the small and the kidneys The kidneys are paired organs with several functions. They are seen in many types of animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are an essential part of the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid-base balance, and regulation of blood pressure. They serve the, prostaglandin levels are increased by COX-2 in scenarios of inflammation Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process. Inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Even in cases where inflammation is. A third form of COX, termed COX-3 is thought to exist in the brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary and may be associated with relief of Headaches when on NSAID therapy.

Prostaglandin E synthase

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is generated from the action of prostaglandin E synthases Prostaglandin E synthase is an enzyme involved in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism, a member of MAPEG family. It generates prostaglandin E (PGE) from prostaglandin H2 on prostaglandin H2 (PGH2). Several prostaglandin E synthases have been identified. To date, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 emerges as a key enzyme in the formation of PGE2.

Other terminal prostaglandin synthases

Terminal prostaglandin synthases have been identified that are responsible for the formation of other prostaglandins. For example, hematopoietic and lipocalin The lipocalins are a family of proteins which transport small hydrophobic molecules such as steroids, bilins, retinoids, and lipids. They share limited regions of sequence homology and a common tertiary structure architecture. This is an eight stranded antiparallel beta-barrel with a repeated + 1 topology enclosing an internal ligand binding site prostaglandin D synthases (hPGDS and lPGDS) are responsible for the formation of PGD2 from PGH2. Similarly, prostacyclin (PGI2) synthase (PGIS) converts PGH2 into PGI2. A thromboxane synthase (TxAS This gene encodes a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. The cytochrome P450 proteins are monooxygenases which catalyze many reactions involved in drug metabolism and synthesis of cholesterol, steroids and other lipids. However, this protein is considered a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily on the basis of sequence) has also been identified. Prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS) catalyzes the formation of 9α,11β-PGF2α,β from PGD2 and PGF2α from PGH2 in the presence of NADPH. This enzyme has recently been crystallyzed in complex with PGD2[6] and bimatoprost[7] (a synthetic analogue of PGF2α).

Function

There are currently ten known prostaglandin receptors on various cell types. Prostaglandins ligate a sub-family of cell surface seven-transmembrane receptors, G-protein-coupled receptors G protein-coupled receptors , also known as seven-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), comprise a large protein family of transmembrane receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately,. These receptors are termed DP1-2, EP1-4, FP, IP1-2, and TP, corresponding to the receptor that ligates the corresponding prostaglandin (e.g., DP1-2 receptors bind to PGD2).

The diversity of receptors means that prostaglandins act on an array of cells and have a wide variety of effects such as:

Prostaglandins are potent but have a short half-life before being inactivated and excreted. Therefore, they send only paracrine (locally active) or autocrine (acting on the same cell from which it is synthesized) signals.

Types

The following is a comparison of different types of prostaglandin, prostaglandin I2 (PGI2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α).

Type Receptor Function
PGI2 IP
PGE2 EP1
EP2
EP3
Unspecified
PGF2α FP

Role in pharmacology

Inhibition

See also: Prostaglandin antagonist and Mechanism of action of aspirin

Examples of prostaglandin antagonists are:

Clinical uses

Synthetic prostaglandins are used:

References

  1. ^ Nelson RJ. 2005. An introduction to behavior endocrinology. 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Massachusetts. pg. 100.
  2. ^ Von Euler US (1935). "Über die spezifische blutdrucksenkende Substanz des menschlichen Prostata- und Samenblasensekrets" (PDF). Wien Klin Wochenschr 14 (33): 1182–3. http://www.springerlink.com/content/g602m231xpw85226/fulltext.pdf.
  3. ^ Goldblatt MW (May 1935). "Properties of human seminal plasma". J Physiol 84 (2): 208–18. PMID 16994667. PMC 1394818. http://www.jphysiol.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16994667.
  4. ^ Nicolaou, K. C.; E. J. Sorensen (1996). Classics in Total Synthesis. Weinheim, Germany: VCH. p. 65. ISBN 3-527-29284-5.
  5. ^ essential fatty acid (EFA) at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  6. ^ Komoto J, Yamada T, Watanabe K, Takusagawa F (2004). "Crystal structure of human prostaglandin F synthase (AKR1C3)". Biochemistry 43 (8): 2188–98. doi:10.1021/bi036046x. PMID 14979715.
  7. ^ Komoto J, Yamada T, Watanabe K, Woodward D, Takusagawa F (2006). "Prostaglandin F2alpha formation from prostaglandin H2 by prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS): crystal structure of PGFS containing bimatoprost". Biochemistry 45 (7): 1987–96. doi:10.1021/bi051861t. PMID 16475787.
  8. ^ a b Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology (5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 234. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.
  9. ^ Fabre JE, Nguyen M, Athirakul K, Coggins K, McNeish JD, Austin S, Parise LK, FitzGerald GA, Coffman TM, Koller BH. Journal of Clinical investigation, 2001, 107:603
  10. ^ Gross S,Tilly P, Hentsch D, Vonesch JL, Fabre JE. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 2007, 204:311
  11. ^ Medscape Early Penile Rehabilitation Helps Reduce Later Intractable ED
  12. ^ LaBonde, MS, DVM, Jerry. "Avian Reproductive and Pediatric Disorders" (PDF). Michigan Veterinary Medical Association. http://www.michvma.org/documents/MVC%20Proceedings/Labonde2.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-26.

External links

Endocrine system: hormones (Peptide hormones · Steroid hormones)
Endocrine glands
Hypothalamic- pituitary
Hypothalamus GnRH · TRH · Dopamine · CRH · GHRH/Somatostatin · Melanin concentrating hormone
Posterior pituitary Vasopressin · Oxytocin
Anterior pituitary α (FSH FSHB, LH LHB, TSH TSHB, CGA) · Prolactin · POMC (CLIP, ACTH, MSH, Endorphins, Lipotropin) · GH
Adrenal axis Adrenal cortex: aldosterone · cortisol · DHEA Adrenal medulla: epinephrine · norepinephrine
Thyroid axis Thyroid: thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) · calcitonin Parathyroid: PTH
Gonadal axis

Testis: testosterone · AMH · inhibin

Ovary: estradiol · progesterone · activin and inhibin · relaxin (pregnancy)

Placenta: hCG · HPL · estrogen · progesterone
Other end. glands

Pancreas: glucagon · insulin · somatostatin

Pineal gland: melatonin

Thymus: Thymosin · Thymopoietin · Thymulin
Non-end. glands

digestive system: Stomach: gastrin · ghrelin · Duodenum: CCK · GIP · secretin · motilin · VIP · Ileum: enteroglucagon · Liver/other: Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1, IGF-2)

Adipose tissue: leptin · adiponectin · resistin

Skeleton: Osteocalcin

Kidney: JGA (renin) · peritubular cells (EPO) · calcitriol · prostaglandin

Heart: Natriuretic peptide (ANP, BNP)

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, drug (///)
Autacoids, unsaturated fatty acids: Eicosanoids
Precursor Arachidonic acid
Prostanoids
Prostaglandins (PG) and analogues
Precursor H2
Active
D/J D2
E/F

E2 (Dinoprostone): Enprostil · Sulprostone

E1 (Alprostadil): Misoprostol · Gemeprost

F2α (Dinoprost): Bimatoprost · Carboprost · Latanoprost · Tafluprost · Travoprost · Unoprostone
I I2 (Prostacyclin/Epoprostenol): Beraprost · Iloprost · Treprostinil
Thromboxanes (TX) A2 · B2
Leukotrienes (LT)
Precursor Arachidonic acid 5-hydroperoxide
Initial A4 · B4
SRS-A C4 · D4 · E4
Nonclassic Lipoxins (A4, B4) · Virodhamine
By function

bronchoconstriction (PGF2α, TXA2, LTC4, LTD4, LTE4)

vasoconstriction (PGF2α, TXA2, TXB2) · vasodilation (PGE2, PGI2, LTC4, LTD4, LTE4)

platelets: induce (TXA2) inhibit (PGD2, PGI2) · leukocytes: induce (TXA2, LTB4) inhibit (PGD2, PGE2)

labor stimulation: (PGE2 (Dinoprostone), PGF2α (Dinoprost))
see also
Uterotonics/labor inducers/oxytocics (G02A)
Cervical ripening
Ergot alkaloids Ergometrine# (Syntometrine) · Methylergometrine
Prostaglandins and analogues

E: Misoprostol/E1# · Gemeprost/E1 · Dinoprostone/E2 · Sulprostone/E2

F: Dinoprost/F2α · Carboprost/F2α
Contraction induction Oxytocin# · Carbetocin · Demoxytocin · WAY-267,464
#WHO-EM. ‡Withdrawn from market. CLINICAL TRIALS: †Phase III. §Never to phase III

: OBS

/

//,

, drug(/)
Drugs for acid related disorders: Drugs for peptic ulcer and GERD/GORD (A02B)
H2 antagonists ("-idine") Cimetidine · Famotidine · Lafutidine · Loxtidine · Niperotidine · Nizatidine · Ranitidine · Roxatidine
Prostaglandins (E)/analogues ("-prost-") Misoprostol · Enprostil
Proton-pump inhibitors ("-prazole") Dexlansoprazole · Esomeprazole · Lansoprazole · Omeprazole · Pantoprazole · Rabeprazole · Tenatoprazole
Other Acetoxolone · Alginic acid · Carbenoxolone · Cetraxate · Gefarnate · Pirenzepine · Proglumide · Sucralfate · Sulglicotide · Teprenone · Troxipide · Zolimidine · Rebamipide ·
See also: Helicobacter pylori eradication protocols

: DIG

anat(, , )///

//, /

, drug(////////)
Ophthalmologicals: antiglaucoma preparations and miotics (S01E)
Sympathomimetics Apraclonidine • Brimonidine • Clonidine • Dipivefrine • Epinephrine
Parasympathomimetics
muscarinic Aceclidine • Pilocarpine
muscarinic/nicotinic Acetylcholine • Carbachol
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Demecarium • Ecothiopate • Stigmine (Fluostigmine, Neostigmine, Physostigmine) • Paraoxon
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/ (sulfonamides) Acetazolamide • Brinzolamide • Diclofenamide • Dorzolamide • Methazolamide
Beta blocking agents Befunolol • Betaxolol • Carteolol • Levobunolol • Metipranolol • Timolol • Mepindolol
Prostaglandin analogues (F2α) Bimatoprost • Latanoprost • Tafluprost • Travoprost • Unoprostone
Other agents Dapiprazole • Guanethidine

: EYE

anat(, , )///

//,

, drug(///)
Urologicals, including antispasmodics (G04B)
Acidifiers Ammonium chloride · Calcium chloride
Urinary antispasmodics (primarily antimuscarinics) Darifenacin · Emepronium · Fesoterodine · Flavoxate · Imidafenacin · Meladrazine · Oxybutynin · Propiverine · Solifenacin · Terodiline · Tolterodine · Trospium
For erectile dysfunction
Prostaglandins (E) Alprostadil
PDE5 inhibitors Avanafil · Sildenafil · Tadalafil · Udenafil · Vardenafil
Alpha blockers Moxisylyte · Phentolamine · Yohimbine
Dopamine D4 receptor agonists ABT-670 · ABT-724
Others Apomorphine · Papaverine
Other urologicals

urea analogues: Acetohydroxamic acid · Salicylhydroxamic acid

SSRI for PE: Dapoxetine

other: Collagen · Dimethyl sulfoxide · Magnesium hydroxide · Pentosan polysulfate · Phenazopyridine · Phenyl salicylate · Succinimide

: URI

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A. I believe it is used in inductions. To help the mother deliver the baby. So no its not an abortion. It want hurt the baby. It should only speed up the birthing process.
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